U6.7 The Labor Movement
Master AP US History topic 6.7: industrial working conditions, the Knights of Labor vs. the AFL, the great strikes of the Gilded Age, and government's pro-business role.
What you'll do in this lesson
A voice-first session with the Crimsora tutor on U6.7 The Labor Movement, then targeted practice and FRQs — with the tutor adapting to where you get stuck.
What this lesson covers
By 1900 the United States led the world in industrial output, but the workers who powered that transformation faced twelve-hour days, dangerous machines, and wages that barely covered rent. This lesson traces how those conditions pushed workers to organize — and why organizing was so hard in an era when courts, troops, and public opinion usually sided with employers.
You will learn to distinguish the two most important labor organizations of the age, evaluate what four famous strikes reveal about the balance of power between labor and capital, and analyze the role of government injunctions and federal troops. On the exam, this topic frequently appears in questions about continuity and change in workers' lives and the relationship between business and government during the Gilded Age.
You will learn to distinguish the two most important labor organizations of the age, evaluate what four famous strikes reveal about the balance of power between labor and capital, and analyze the role of government injunctions and federal troops. On the exam, this topic frequently appears in questions about continuity and change in workers' lives and the relationship between business and government during the Gilded Age.
Conditions Industrial Workers Faced
The factory system of the late nineteenth century concentrated workers in large mills, mines, and plants where they no longer owned their tools or controlled the pace of their labor. Unskilled and semi-skilled workers were interchangeable, so employers could easily fire and replace anyone who complained. Common conditions included ten- to twelve-hour days, six-day weeks, low wages tied to the market, and no compensation for injury or death.
Several forces kept wages down and bargaining power weak. A steady stream of new immigrants and migrants from farms provided a large labor pool. Employers used the ideology of laissez-faire and Social Darwinism to argue that government should not interfere with the free market. When workers struck, employers hired strikebreakers (called scabs) and used blacklists to punish organizers and lockouts to shut them out.
A frequent misconception is that most workers belonged to unions. In fact, only a small minority were organized in this period, which is one reason strikes so often failed.
Several forces kept wages down and bargaining power weak. A steady stream of new immigrants and migrants from farms provided a large labor pool. Employers used the ideology of laissez-faire and Social Darwinism to argue that government should not interfere with the free market. When workers struck, employers hired strikebreakers (called scabs) and used blacklists to punish organizers and lockouts to shut them out.
| Employer tactic | Purpose |
|---|---|
| Blacklist | Deny jobs to known union members |
| Lockout | Bar workers from the plant to break a union |
| Yellow-dog contract | Force workers to promise not to unionize |
| Strikebreakers (scabs) | Keep production running during a strike |
Knights of Labor vs. the American Federation of Labor
The two major labor organizations took very different approaches. The Knights of Labor, led by Terence Powderly, practiced inclusive, industry-wide unionism. They welcomed skilled and unskilled workers, women, and African Americans (though they excluded Chinese immigrants) and pursued broad reforms such as the eight-hour day, an end to child labor, and cooperatives to replace the wage system. Membership surged in the mid-1880s but collapsed after the Knights were wrongly blamed for the Haymarket violence in 1886.
The American Federation of Labor, founded in 1886 and led by Samuel Gompers, took a narrower, more pragmatic path known as 'bread-and-butter unionism.' The AFL organized skilled craft workers into a federation of trade unions and focused on concrete goals — higher wages, shorter hours, and better working conditions — using strikes and collective bargaining rather than sweeping social reform.
The AFL's practical focus helped it survive and grow while the Knights faded, a contrast the exam often asks you to explain.
The American Federation of Labor, founded in 1886 and led by Samuel Gompers, took a narrower, more pragmatic path known as 'bread-and-butter unionism.' The AFL organized skilled craft workers into a federation of trade unions and focused on concrete goals — higher wages, shorter hours, and better working conditions — using strikes and collective bargaining rather than sweeping social reform.
| Feature | Knights of Labor | AFL |
|---|---|---|
| Leader | Terence Powderly | Samuel Gompers |
| Membership | Skilled and unskilled, broad | Skilled craft workers |
| Goals | Broad social reform, cooperatives | Wages, hours, conditions |
| Method | Reform, some strikes | Strikes, collective bargaining |
| Peak | Mid-1880s, then declined | Grew steadily after 1886 |
The Major Strikes
Four strikes anchor this topic. The Great Railroad Strike of 1877 began when the B&O Railroad cut wages; it spread across multiple states and became the first strike to prompt President Rutherford B. Hayes to send federal troops, establishing a pattern of federal intervention on behalf of employers.
The Haymarket affair of 1886 in Chicago began as a rally supporting the eight-hour day. A bomb killed police officers, and eight anarchists were convicted with little evidence. Haymarket linked the labor movement to radicalism and anarchism in the public mind and helped destroy the Knights of Labor.
The Homestead Strike of 1892 pitted steelworkers against Andrew Carnegie's company, run by Henry Clay Frick. Frick hired armed Pinkerton detectives, a violent battle ensued, and the state militia broke the strike, weakening unions in the steel industry.
The Pullman Strike of 1894 began at the Pullman company town near Chicago and spread nationally when Eugene V. Debs's American Railway Union boycotted trains carrying Pullman cars. The federal government obtained a court injunction (citing interference with mail and interstate commerce under the Sherman Antitrust Act) and President Grover Cleveland sent troops to crush it. Debs was jailed.
The Haymarket affair of 1886 in Chicago began as a rally supporting the eight-hour day. A bomb killed police officers, and eight anarchists were convicted with little evidence. Haymarket linked the labor movement to radicalism and anarchism in the public mind and helped destroy the Knights of Labor.
The Homestead Strike of 1892 pitted steelworkers against Andrew Carnegie's company, run by Henry Clay Frick. Frick hired armed Pinkerton detectives, a violent battle ensued, and the state militia broke the strike, weakening unions in the steel industry.
The Pullman Strike of 1894 began at the Pullman company town near Chicago and spread nationally when Eugene V. Debs's American Railway Union boycotted trains carrying Pullman cars. The federal government obtained a court injunction (citing interference with mail and interstate commerce under the Sherman Antitrust Act) and President Grover Cleveland sent troops to crush it. Debs was jailed.
Government Injunctions and Troops
The most important pattern in this topic is that federal and state governments consistently intervened on the side of employers. This intervention took two main forms: sending troops or militia to reopen plants and railroads, and issuing court injunctions ordering strikers back to work.
An injunction is a court order requiring someone to do or stop doing something; defying it means arrest for contempt of court. In the Pullman Strike, the government used the Sherman Antitrust Act — a law meant to control monopolies — against a labor union, arguing the strike was a 'conspiracy in restraint of trade.' The Supreme Court upheld Debs's jailing in In re Debs (1895), giving legal blessing to the injunction as an anti-strike weapon.
This alliance between government and business reflected the era's laissez-faire ideology and helps explain why organized labor made limited gains before the twentieth century. On the exam, you should be able to connect these interventions to the broader Gilded Age theme of business influence over politics. A common student error is to assume the government stayed neutral; in reality, its power tilted decisively toward employers, and workers' key victories would come only in later decades.
An injunction is a court order requiring someone to do or stop doing something; defying it means arrest for contempt of court. In the Pullman Strike, the government used the Sherman Antitrust Act — a law meant to control monopolies — against a labor union, arguing the strike was a 'conspiracy in restraint of trade.' The Supreme Court upheld Debs's jailing in In re Debs (1895), giving legal blessing to the injunction as an anti-strike weapon.
This alliance between government and business reflected the era's laissez-faire ideology and helps explain why organized labor made limited gains before the twentieth century. On the exam, you should be able to connect these interventions to the broader Gilded Age theme of business influence over politics. A common student error is to assume the government stayed neutral; in reality, its power tilted decisively toward employers, and workers' key victories would come only in later decades.
Key terms
- Injunction.
- A court order requiring a person or group to do or stop doing something; used to force strikers back to work, with defiance punishable as contempt.
- Knights of Labor.
- An inclusive labor organization led by Terence Powderly that welcomed skilled and unskilled workers and sought broad social reforms; declined after Haymarket.
- American Federation of Labor (AFL).
- A federation of skilled craft unions founded in 1886 and led by Samuel Gompers, focused on practical 'bread-and-butter' goals like wages and hours.
- Scab (strikebreaker).
- A worker hired to replace strikers and keep production going, undermining a strike.
- Yellow-dog contract.
- An agreement forcing a worker to promise not to join a union as a condition of employment.
- Haymarket affair.
- An 1886 Chicago labor rally where a bomb killed police; it linked unions to anarchism and hastened the decline of the Knights of Labor.
- In re Debs (1895).
- Supreme Court case upholding the use of a federal injunction to end the Pullman Strike, legitimizing anti-strike court orders.
- Collective bargaining.
- Negotiation between organized workers and employers over wages, hours, and conditions, a central AFL strategy.
Worked example
A stimulus-based question presents an 1894 newspaper editorial praising President Cleveland for sending federal troops to Chicago 'to keep the mails moving and protect commerce.' The question asks: The events described in the editorial most directly reflect which of the following patterns in the late nineteenth century?
First, identify the event. Federal troops sent to Chicago in 1894 to protect the mail points to the Pullman Strike, where Eugene V. Debs's American Railway Union boycotted trains carrying Pullman cars.
Next, recall the government's role. The federal government obtained an injunction arguing the strike interfered with the mail and interstate commerce, then President Cleveland sent troops to enforce it. The strike collapsed and Debs was jailed.
Now generalize the pattern. Across the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, Homestead in 1892, and Pullman in 1894, government power repeatedly intervened on the side of employers to break strikes. The editorial's approving tone frames this as protecting commerce rather than a neutral act.
Therefore the correct pattern is that the federal government tended to support business interests over organized labor during the Gilded Age. A strong response would cite the injunction and troops as evidence and connect them to the laissez-faire ideology that treated strikes as illegal interference with the free market.
Next, recall the government's role. The federal government obtained an injunction arguing the strike interfered with the mail and interstate commerce, then President Cleveland sent troops to enforce it. The strike collapsed and Debs was jailed.
Now generalize the pattern. Across the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, Homestead in 1892, and Pullman in 1894, government power repeatedly intervened on the side of employers to break strikes. The editorial's approving tone frames this as protecting commerce rather than a neutral act.
Therefore the correct pattern is that the federal government tended to support business interests over organized labor during the Gilded Age. A strong response would cite the injunction and troops as evidence and connect them to the laissez-faire ideology that treated strikes as illegal interference with the free market.
Practice questions
Which of the following best distinguishes the American Federation of Labor from the Knights of Labor?
- The AFL welcomed unskilled workers while the Knights organized only skilled craftsmen
- The AFL focused on practical goals like wages and hours for skilled workers, while the Knights pursued broad social reform for all workers
- The AFL was founded before the Civil War while the Knights emerged in the 1890s
- The AFL rejected strikes entirely while the Knights relied only on strikes
Answer: The AFL focused on practical goals like wages and hours for skilled workers, while the Knights pursued broad social reform for all workers
The AFL under Gompers practiced 'bread-and-butter' unionism among skilled craft workers, seeking higher wages and shorter hours through collective bargaining. The Knights under Powderly were inclusive of unskilled workers and pursued wide-ranging reforms and cooperatives. The other choices reverse the memberships, misstate the timeline, or wrongly claim the AFL rejected strikes.
Explain how the federal government responded to major labor strikes between 1877 and 1894, and briefly evaluate the effect of that response on the labor movement.
Answer: The government repeatedly intervened on the side of employers by sending troops (1877, Pullman) and issuing injunctions (Pullman), which weakened unions and limited labor's gains in this period.
A strong answer notes that in 1877 President Hayes sent federal troops to end the railroad strike, and in 1894 President Cleveland used a court injunction and troops to crush the Pullman Strike, with the Supreme Court upholding the injunction in In re Debs. This consistent pro-business intervention, rooted in laissez-faire ideology, discouraged organizing and helps explain why unions remained weak and small until the twentieth century.
FAQ
- Why did the Knights of Labor decline so quickly?
- The Knights grew rapidly in the mid-1880s but were wrongly blamed for the violence at the 1886 Haymarket affair, which associated them with anarchism and radicalism. That reputation, combined with failed strikes and internal weaknesses, caused membership to collapse.
- What is the difference between a strike, a lockout, and an injunction?
- A strike is workers stopping work to pressure an employer. A lockout is the employer barring workers from the workplace to break a union. An injunction is a court order — often used to force strikers back to work under threat of arrest for contempt.
- Why did the government side with businesses instead of workers?
- Gilded Age leaders embraced laissez-faire economics and viewed strikes as illegal interference with commerce and property. Business also held strong political influence, so courts and presidents treated protecting production and the mail as protecting the public interest.
- How is topic 6.7 usually tested on the AP exam?
- It commonly appears in multiple-choice and short-answer questions using strike-related documents, and can support arguments in DBQ or LEQ prompts about continuity and change in workers' conditions or the relationship between business and government in the Gilded Age.
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